COURSE NOTES: Introductory Psychology

Notes for Psychology 101: based on Myers's text, Exploring Psychology, with supplements and modifications by the instructor, Prof. Cloninger.

denotes a term that you should know how to define, and to recognize and give examples. denotes an important person. You should remember this person's name and what (s)he has done. denotes an important research finding. denotes an issue that you should be able to discuss or explain.

emotion: a response of the whole organism, involving (1) physiological arousal, (2) expressive behaviors, and (3) conscious experience
for example: fear, anger, sadness, joy, love

3 Components of an Emotion: physiological arousal, expressive behavior, and conscious experience

• example of fear:
  • physiological arousal: pounding heart
  • expressive behavior: quickened pace
  • conscious experience: interpreting threat; feeling fear

THEORIES OF EMOTION

The James-Lange and Cannon-Bard Theories

James-Lange theory: physiological reactions produce emotions
Cannon-Bard theory: emotions occur independent of physiology (at the same time)

JAMES-LANGE THEORY [graphic presented in lecture]

physiology is necessary for emotion

supporting evidence: emotions are less intense after (high) spinal cord injuries

CANNON-BARD THEORY [graphic presented in lecture]

physiology is NOT a necessary cause for emotion

(cognition doesn't require physiological reaction)

Cognition and Emotion

SCHACHTER'S TWO-FACTOR THEORY OF EMOTION

emotions have 2 ingredients: physiological arousal (general) and cognitive label (distinctive)
arousal from epinephrine can be interpreted in different ways

Schachter and Singer's study

Ss were given epinephrine, under cover story
Ss were not told about the physiological effects of the drug
Ss were exposed to one of two models:
euphoric (happy)
angry
The impact of a drug (epinephrine) can be changed by social influence.
Results of Schachter & Singer study [presented graphically in class]

Other researchers have found that after exercise, lingering arousal can lead to various emotions, depending on the labels applied.

MUST COGNITION PRECEDE EMOTION?

no, according to neurological evidence
(though maybe there is "unconscious" quick cognitive appraisal)

EMBODIED EMOTION

Emotion and Physiology

Arousal

is controlled by the autonomic nervous system

AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM

SYMPATHETIC DIVISION
arouses
dilated pupils
dry mouth
fast breathing
fast heart beat
slowed digestion
increased stress hormones

PARASYMPATHETIC DIVISION
calms
contracted pupils
increased salivation
dry skin
decreased respiration
slowed heart beat
increased digestion
decreased stress hormones

AROUSAL AND PERFORMANCE [graph, Myers 2005, p. 384; alternate graph presented in lecture]

The Physiology of Specific Emotions

similar general autonomic arousal
subtle differences in finger temperature, hormone secretions, brain circuits
more left hemisphere activity for positive emotions
more right hemisphere activity in negative emotions (e.g., depressed people)

polygraph: a machine, commonly used to detect lies, that measures several of the physiological responses accompanying emotion (such as perspiration, heart rate, blood pressure, and breathing changes) [See Myers, p. 386 box on "Lie Detection"]

Examples of typical questions asked in a polygraph test.

Guilty subjects are expected to show elevated polygraph activity to the relevant questions, compared to innocent subjects.
(Adapted from Honts, Raskin, & Kircher, 1994, p. 254.)
Introductory: Do you intend to answer all questions truthfully?
Neutral: Are you a student?
Control: Prior to your last birthday, did you ever take something that did not belong to you?
Relevant: Did you take the rare coin?
Neutral: Is your first name [John]?
Relevant: Did you take the rare coin from the desk?

Comparison of laboratory experiments and real-world applications of polygraph techniques.

Guilt or Innocence of Person Examined
Real World: is seldom known for certain
Laboratory: is known by experimental manipulation

Consequences of the Test for the Examinee
Real World: often severe (criminal penalty or employment status)
Laboratory: trivial (though increased by offering incentives for passing the test)

Subjects
Real World: suspects of a crime, and job applicants or employees
Laboratory: often college students

EXPRESSED EMOTION

Nonverbal Communication

firm handshake

eye contact (intimacy, submission, dominance)

anger: most readily detected

eyes: fear and anger

mouth: happiness

abused children: sensitized to perceiving anger

Gender, Emotion, and Nonverbal Behavior

females superior at reading emotional cues and detecting lies; females more emotionally responsive, expressive, and empathic

Detecting Emotion

facial muscles: cues to emotions; feigned emotions are different from genuine ones

Notice the facial muscles in the emotion of “surprise.” [image in lecture]

attempts to control emotional expression

email "emoticons"

:-)
:-(
:-{)
;-)
8-)

Culture and Emotional Expression

gestures mean different things in different cultures
facial expressions are universal
facial expressions are innate (e.g., in blind children)
facial expressions are social

Cultures vary in how much emotion should be expressed.

The Effects of Facial Expression

Expressions amplify and regulate emotion.
"Put on a happy face"
Facial expressions change emotions. ("facial feedback")
Facial expressions change autonomic nervous system.
Facial imitation can increase empathy.

EXPERIENCED EMOTION

dimensions of emotional experience

pleasant vs. unpleasant
aroused vs. sleepy

Izard: 10 basic emotions

joy
interest-excitement
surprise
sadness
anger
disgust
contempt
fear
shame
guilt

Anger

frequent
can be expressed hurtfully, or assertively
expression is discouraged in group-centered cultures

catharsis: emotional release, said to be provided by emotional expression

"blowing off steam "to release anger
Does "blowing off steam" reduce your anger, or increase it? Research suggests it is more likely to increase it.

Dealing effectively with anger: Don't be chronically angry. Don't sulk. Don't overreact. Do communicate anger in a way to build reconciliation.

Happiness

Makes the world seem safer.
Makes decisions easier.
Causes us to help others more. (the "feel-good, do-good phenomenon")
Changes with time.
Is not permanently affected by even major losses (traumas) or gains (winning the lottery).

THE ADAPTATION-LEVEL PRINCIPLE: HAPPINESS IS RELATIVE TO OUR PRIOR EXPERIENCE

adaptation-level principle: our tendency to form judgments (of sounds, of lights, of income) relative to a "neutral" level defined by our prior experience
example: million-dollar lottery winners return to their earlier level of happiness

THE RELATIVE DEPRIVATION PRINCIPLE: HAPPINESS IS RELATIVE TO OTHERS' ATTAINMENTS

relative deprivation: the perception that one is worse off relative to those with whom one compares oneself
even the wealthy compare themselves unfavorably with those who earn more

PREDICTORS OF HAPPINESS

engaging, challenging activities (work or active leisure)
self-esteem
optimism and extraversion
close relationships
religious faith
enough sleep and exercise
genetics !

STRESS AND HEALTH

Stress and Stressors

stressors: threats or challenges
stress reaction: their effect on or physiological, emotional, and behavioral reactions

stress: the process by which we perceive and respond to certain events, called stressors, that we appraise as threatening or challenging
examples: stress of exams; of moving into a new environment

THE STRESS RESPONSE SYSTEM

Selye's general adaptation syndrome (GAS)

GENERAL ADAPTATION SYNDROME

phase 1: alarm reaction
phase 2: resistance
phase 3: exhaustion

BEHAVIORAL MEDICINE
an interdisciplinary field that integrates and applies behavioral and medical knowledge to health and disease

HEALTH PSYCHOLOGY
a subfield of psychology that provides psychology's contribution to behavioral medicine

STRESSFUL LIFE EVENTS

catastrophes
significant life changes
daily hassles

PERCEIVED CONTROL

negative and uncontrollable events are stressful

poverty and inequality: economic status predicts longevity
optimists cope better with stress
captivity and crowding increase stress (in animals and humans)

Stress and the Heart

coronary heart disease: clogging of the vessels that nourish the heart muscle

TYPE A PERSONALITY

competitive, hard-driving, impatient, verbally aggressive, and anger-prone people who are prone to heart disease
Friedman and Rosenman's accountants, studied in their cardiology office
Negative emotions are the dangerous component.
Anger and depression are dangerous.
Fast-paced life is not so dangerous as originally thought. 

Stress and Susceptibility to Disease

psychophysiological illnesses

STRESS AND THE IMMUNE SYSTEM

lymphocytes: white blood cells
Stress suppresses the immune system, predisposing to illness.

STRESS AND AIDS

stress and negative emotions lead to earlier illness

STRESS AND CANCER

Stress and negative emotions such as depression cause cancer.
Attitudes of cancer patients predict survival.

CONDITIONING THE IMMUNE SYSTEM

conditioned allergic reaction
conditioned immune suppression

PROMOTING HEALTH

How can I cope with stress?

Coping With Stress

Aerobic Exercise: improves mood and health
Biofeedback
Relaxation
Social Support
Spirituality and Faith Communities

Supplementary notes, related to the third paper assignment:

Emotions in Everyday Life

Positive Emotions: joy, pride, pleasure, interest, etc.
Negative Emotions: pain, embarrassment, anger, guilt, etc.

Emotions in operant conditioning:

Positive emotions: reinforcers
Negative emotions: punishers
Ending negative emotions: negative reinforcers

So, emotions influence behavior.
If you can control your emotions, it will be easier to control your behavior.
How to control your emotions:

First, understand what triggers positive and negative emotions.
Analyze these triggers carefully. They probably aren't only "external" events, but are "internal" cognitive activities.

Example: My friend went to a party without me. I feel sad.

Did the friend (directly) cause the sadness?
Or was it the cognitive interpretation?

"My friend doesn't like me any more."
"I will be alone every weekend."
"I am worthless and unlovable."

Once you understand what triggers your emotions, you can work to change those triggers.

Perhaps by changing external events.

Example: Taking the initiative in making plans with the friend.

Perhaps by changing your thought patterns.

Example: "All friendships need space as well as togetherness. This is a chance for me to make new friends while keeping the old ones."

Emotions also influence behavior because we act on them.

We seek to increase positive emotions by doing what leads to them.
We seek to decrease negative emotions by not doing what leads to them.

For example:

We drink if it leads to relaxation.
We party if it leads to pleasure.
We avoid studying if it makes us anxious.
We don't go to class if it makes us bored.

A mature, healthy person can substitute these automatic reactions to emotion with conscious choice.

We don't get caught in the trap of seeking immediate pleasure.
We face current pain and anxiety, if the long-term consequences are worth it.

WHAT ARE SOME WAYS OF COPING?

1. Actively work to solve the problem. (Behavioral coping: Make changes in the world, in external behavior.)
2. Change how you think about the problem. (Cognitive reinterpretation)
3. Seek emotional support. (Social support: Talk to friends or other supportive people.)
OTHER WAYS OF COPING: humor, distraction, exercise, medication, religion, etc.

Students: You can also use resources for this text supplied by the publisher. These include a chapter overview, self-tests, and other resources.

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