COURSE NOTES: Introductory Psychology

Notes for Psychology 101: based on Myers's text, Exploring Psychology, with supplements and modifications by the instructor, Prof. Cloninger.

denotes a term that you should know how to define, and to recognize and give examples. denotes an important person. You should remember this person's name and what (s)he has done. denotes an important research finding. denotes an issue that you should be able to discuss or explain.

• Examples: hunger; sexual motivation; achievement motivation; need to belong

MOTIVATIONAL CONCEPTS

Instincts and Evolutionary Psychology

Drives and Incentives

Optimum Arousal

A Hierarchy of Motives

Instincts and Evolutionary Psychology

instinct: a complex behavior that is rigidly patterned throughout a species and is unlearned (Myers, 2005, p. 343)

example: nest-building in birds

Drives and Incentives

homeostasis: the maintenance of a steady internal state

example: body's temperature-regulation system

Incentive Theory

incentives: environmental stimuli that motivate behavior by luring us (positive stimuli) or repelling us (negative stimuli)

examples:

the appeal of an appetizing food (positive)

the threat of disapproval (negative)

Incentives are the "carrots" and "sticks" that motivate a stubborn donkey. [graphic in class]

Optimum Arousal

seeking the optimum level of arousal
recognizes that sometimes we seek to increase arousal (e.g., the thrill of climbing mountains; the boredom of sensory deprivation)

(Some people prefer higher levels of arousal than others.)

A Hierarchy of Motives (needs)

Maslow's theory that higher-order needs emerge after lower-order needs are met
example: hungry people become obsessed with food, and do not think about higher-order needs such as love and esteem

from lowest to highest, the needs are: physiological; safety; belongingness and love; esteem; self-actualization

HUNGER

The Physiology of Hunger

includes both peripheral (stomach) and central (brain) components

stomach contractions (Washburn & Cannon)

ghrelin (hormone secreted by empty stomach that arouses hunger)

Body Chemistry and the Brain

• insulin decreases blood sugar (glucose)
• low glucose triggers hunger
• lateral hypothalamus: hunger
• ventromedial hypthalamus: satiety
• set point
• basal metabolic rate

Hunger and the Hypothalamus

• lateral hypothalamus (LH)
  • stimulation leads to eating
  • lesions produce starvation
• ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH)
  • stimulation stops eating
  • lesions produce fat

set point

• the point at which an individual's "weight thermostat" is supposedly set
• influences food intake
• influences basal metabolic rate

The Psychology of Hunger

Taste Preference: Biology or Culture?

genetic, universal preferences for sweet and salty tastes
unusual tastes in various cultures

avoidance of novelty

adaptive value of spices as antibacterial (especially in hot climates)

Obesity and Weight Control

fat protects from starvation
cultural differences in ideal for thinness, correlates with eating disorders
physical risks of fat: diabetes, high blood pressure, heart disease, gallstones, arthritis, cancer (some types), earlier death

The Social Effects of Obesity

social risks of fat: stereotyping, job discrimination, embarrassment to self and children, not being married, making less money

experimental evidence of discrimination against overweight job applicants (Myers, 2005, p. 352)

The Physiology of Obesity

fat cells: may shrink but don't disappear
set points and metabolism
the genetic factor

cultural factors in weight

• more obesity in lower-class women
• more obesity in Americans than Europeans
• more obesity now than in the past

Eating Disorders

anorexia disorder: significantly underweight (15% or more); feel fat and fear obesity; limited food intake bulimia nervosa: repeated binge-purge episodes; depression; generally normal weight

anorexia nervosa: refusal to maintain minimally normal body weight

intense fear of gaining weight
disturbed perception of body size/shape
amenorrhea (no menses)

2 types of anorexia

restricting type

dieting

fasting

excessive exercie

binge-eating/purging type

self-induced vomiting

misuse of laxatives, diuretics, or enemas

Binge-purge types are more likely to:

have problems with impulse control

abuse alcohol & other drugs

have more labile moods

be sexually active

SYMPTOMS THAT ACCOMPANY ANOREXIA

depressed mood
social withdrawal
irritability
insomnia
diminished interest in sex
(These symptoms can result from semi-starvation.)

Anorexics are interested in food.

think often of food

collect recipes

hoard food

Other symptoms observed in anorexics:

obsessive-compulsive behavior


concern about eating in public


feelings of ineffectiveness


strong need to control one's environment


inflexible thinking


limited social spontaneity


overly restrained initiative


overly restrained emotional expression

Anorexia is more common in:

females


age 17


encountering life stress (such as starting college)


those with relatives who are anorexic


those with relatives who are depressed

Why loss of menses?

abnormally low estrogen levels


diminished pituitary secretion of


follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)


luteinizing hormone (LH)

Among anorexics who are admitted to university hospitals ...
more than 10 % die.

BULIMIA NERVOSA

binge eating
inappropriate ways of preventing weight gain

Bulimics are typically normal weight.
Binge eating typically occurs in secret.

Binge eating is often triggered by:

dysphoric mood states


interpersonal stressors


intense hunger following dietary restraint


feelings related to body weight, body shape, and food

What are inappropriate ways of preventing weight gain?

vomiting (80-90% of bulimics)


fasting


excessive exercise (that interferes with important activities, occurs at

inappropriate times or settings, or continues despite injury or medical conditions)


thyroid hormone


not taking insulin (in diabetics)

About 1 to 3 % of adolescent and young adult females are bulimic.

Losing Weight

most who lose, regain later

somewhat better success if monitor behavior after weight loss

importance of exercise

an alternative: accept being overweight

SEXUAL MOTIVATION

Describing Sexual Behavior

Kinsey's studies: more sexual activity than many thought
recent studies: less marital infidelity than popular press reports

Critically Interpreting Sex Surveys

Are the subjects representative of the population?
Do people answer the questions honestly?

The Physiology of Sex

The Sexual Response cycle

excitement phase
plateau phase
orgasm
refractory period

sexual disorders

• problems that consistently impair sexual functioning
• for example
  • lack of sexual energy and arousability
    
  • premature ejaculation (men)
    
  • erectile disorder (men)
    
  • orgasmic disorder (women)

Sexual Dysfunctions and Therapy

premature ejaculation
impotence
orgasmic dysfunction

Hormones and Sexual Behavior

estrogen
testosterone
less important in humans than animals
hormones change in response to behavior

The Psychology of Sex

External Stimuli

• influence beliefs about sexual coercion and (dis)satisfaction with own partners

Imagined Stimuli

Adolescent Sexuality

Culture

• variation in sexual activity across countries

Teen Pregnancy: Contributing factors

• Ignorance
  
• Guilt related to sexual activity
  
• Minimal communication about birth control
  
• Alcohol use
  
• Mass media norms of unprotected promiscuity

• intelligence
• religiosity
• participation as volunteers in service programs

sexually transmitted infections

Sexual Orientation

heterosexual orientation
homosexual orientation

Sexual Orientation Statistics

• survey results: 3-4% of men and 1-2% of women are homosexual

social attitudes: increasing acceptance in culture and among mental health professionals

Origins of Sexual Orientation

The Brain and Sexual Orientation
Genes and Sexual Orientation
Prenatal Hormones and Sexual Orientation

What determines sexual orientation?

• not parent-child relationships
• not fear or hatred of other gender
• not sex hormones
• not sexual victimization

BRAINS AND SEXUAL ORIENTATION: a research study (LeVay, 1991)

• Question: Do gay and heterosexual people have different brains?
• Subjects: heterosexual and homosexual corpses
• Method: measurement (correlational study)
• Measures: "blind" autopsy of hypthalamus
• Results: an area of the hypothalamus was larger in heterosexuals than in homosexuals

CRITICALLY INTERPRETING LEVAY'S STUDY
Correlation does not prove causation!
Maybe brain differences cause sexual orientation--but we can't be sure.
Maybe the hypothalamus grew in reponse to sexual behavior.
We can't do a true experiment on humans, on this topic.
Animal research shows that sexual behavior sometimes causes brain changes.
People's attitudes toward gays and lesbians may be more tolerant if science shows biological causation, instead of supposedly (im)moral choice.

Other Biological Determinants of Sexual Orientation

Genetics: 52% concordance among identical twins
Prenatal Hormones: testosterone influences sexual orientation

Sex and Human Values

"value-free" sex education

THE NEED TO BELONG

Aiding Survival
Wanting to Belong
Acting to Increase Social Acceptance
Maintaining Relationships
Fortifying Health

TAT AND MOTIVATION Thematic Apperception Test Conscious and unconscious processes conscious self-image and values unconscious motives Measurement of unconscious processes Ambiguity of external stimulus Projective tests (Rorschach, TAT, DAP) Unconscious determination Instructions and cues for research "tell a story" 1. Who are the people? What are they doing? 2. What do they want? How do they feel? 3. What led up to this? What went on before? 4. What will happen? How will it end? example of TAT card: mother [graphic presented in class]

ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION

Identifying Achievement Motivation

stories written to ambiguous pictures
intermediate risk preference
higher actual achievement

card: chemists
1. competition with a standard of excellence

• example: trying to beat the world record for home runs in one season
  
• example: trying to give a concert in Carnegie Hall
  

2. long-term involvement toward an achievement goal

• example: practicing many hours every day for years
  

3. unique accomplishment

• example: finding a cure for cancer

Behaviors Associated with the Achievement Motive: choice of moderately difficult tasks (ring-toss; college major and career) return to unfinished tasks (Zeigarnik effect) intermediate risk preference basketball success in business careers, where they take reasonable risks, and where money and business expansion give feedback about achievement prefer jobs which reward performance, not seniority at a national level, contribute to economic growth nAch in readers predicts patents

Sources of Achievement Motivation

independence training in childhood (emotional)
attributions to own competence and effort, and higher expectations (cognitive)

Intrinsic Motivation and Achievement

intrinsic motivation: a desire to perform a behavior for its own sake and to be effective
example: playing ball for the fun of it

extrinsic motivation: a desire to perform a behavior due to promised rewards or threats of punishment
example: working for a paycheck

implications for organizational leaders

• industrial/organizational psychology
• Cultivate Intrinsic Motivation (using rewards to inform, not to control)
  
• Attend to People's Motives
  
• Set Specific, Challenging goals
  
• Choose an Appropriate Leadership Style
  
  • task leadership
    
  • social leadership
    

Students: You can also use resources for this text supplied by the publisher. These include a chapter overview, self-tests, and other resources.

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